Understand� Using Means-end Theory to Experience� the Outdoor Adventure

According to Ford (1981), outdoor educa­ out­� odology known as laddering were developed to � Means-end theory and its associated meth­ tion is "education in, about, and for the reason"� understand how consumers think about products doors, implying a place, a topic, and a .(p. 14). Another working definition stated that or services (Gutman, 1982; Reynolds & Gut­ outdoor education is "an experiential method of man, 1988). "Means-end theory seeks to charac~ learning which takes place primarily through terize the relationships among particular objects sensory involvement with the out-of-doors" or behaviors, 'the means,' and the outcomes and (priest & Gass, 1997, p. 17). Priest and Gass personal values important to the individual, 'the also defined outdoor adventure programs as ends'" (Klenosky, Frauman, Norman, & those that use challenging experiences in the Gengler, 1998, p. 27). More specifically, the outdoors to promote personal and group devel­ theory characterizes the relationships among opment. three key concepts: attributes, consequences, and personal values. Attributes refer to the charac­ This research developed a better under­� teristics of the product or service. For an Out­ standing of the linkages between outdoor adven­� ward Bound course, some of the attributes in­ and� clude the length of the course, location of the ture program (Outward Bound) experiences Previously� course, activities done while on course, and the outcomes using means-end analysis. the means-end approach had been used to under­� number of individuals in the group. Conse­ participation� quences refer to the benefits, which are the de­ stand the outcomes of recreational 1997;� sired outcomes, and also costs/risks, or undesir­ in a ropes course program (Goldenberg Goldenberg, Klenosky, O'Leary, & Templ.in,� able outcomes. Consequences for an Outward 2000). To date, however, means-end analysis� Bound course may be that participants learn to of� work together, learn skills that needed to had not been used to examine the outcomes are . broader outdoor program experiences, such as an limi­ function in the outdoor setting, or just learn Outward Bound course. According to Golden­ . tations and strengths as an individual or group. berg et aI. (2000), "additional research should be Personal values refer to "highly abstract conse­ conducted to better understand this benefit and quences that summarize desired end-states of determine its role and generalizability in other... being" (Goldenberg et aI., 2000, p. 212). Values adventure education settings" (p. 221-222). that may be important for Outward Bound par­ ticipants include a sense of belonging, excite­ BACKGROUND ment, self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment oflife, and a sense of accomplishment. expanded� Research in outdoor education has an� Rather than treating these three elements, over the past several years and there has been outcomes� the attributes, consequences, and values, as in­ increased emphasis on examining the of outdoor education experiences. Means-end� dependent of each other, means-end theory is analysis goes beyond looking simply at the� based on the view that these three elements are educa­� fundamentally interrelated. Specifically, accord­ benefits from participating in an outdoor the� ing to the theory, product/service attributes rep­ tion experience. Means-end theory examines higher­� resent the "means" by which consumers obtain linkages between the benefits and other values.� desired consequences/benefits (as well as avoid level outcomes and important personal im­ undesired consequences/costs) and achieve